What is passive smoking? A smoker inhales only 15% of smoke from a cigarette and other 85% goes directly into the air. So the passive smoking means the inhalation tobacco smoke in the air around a person. It is known as secondhand smoking / involuntary smoking or ETS exposure (exposure to environmental tobacco smoke) as [...]

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Structure and gene of the human growth hormone (GH) molecule The genes for human growth hormone are localized in the q22-24 region of chromosome 17 (GH1) and are closely related to human chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS, also known as placental lactogen) genes. GH, human chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS), and prolactin (PRL) are a [...]

Atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis, disease of large and medium-size arteries, common in socially advanced countries. Atherosclerosis is the most common underlying cause of heart attacks and strokes. The disease probably starts in childhood and develops slowly over main cause of heart attacks and strokes. Many years, giving no indication of its presence. It is rare for its [...]

Platelets Platelets or thrombocytes are the cell fragments circulating in the blood that are involved in the cellular mechanisms of primary hemostasis leading to the formation of blood clots.1 Dysfunction or low levels of platelets predisposes to bleeding, while high levels, although usually asymptomatic, may increase the risk of thrombosis. Platelets are anuclear and disc [...]

Botulinum Toxin Botulinum toxin is a potent toxin. It is derived from botulinum clostridium botulinum.It is a poisonous biological substance and it acts as a neurotoxin. It binds to the nerve endings at the point, the nerve joins a muscle. It blocks the realizing of the principle neurotransmitter. It is called acetylcholine. Acetylcholine at the [...]

What is Emphysema? Emphysema is characterized by destruction of gas exchanging airspaces, i.e. the respiratory bronchiol,alveolar ducts, and alveolai. Their walls become perforated and later obliterated with airspaces.1 Classifications Emphysema is classified into distinct pathologic types, 1 1. Centriacinar emphysema. 2. Panacinar emphysema. Centriacinar emphysema The type most frequently associated with cigarette smoking is characterized [...]

Myocardial diseases are due to a specific heart muscle disorder or a known infiltrative metabolic or toxic or neuromuscular disorder. But may be caused by; • An acute or chronic inflammatory disease (Myocarditis) • Idiopathic myocardial disease ( Cardiomyopathy) Cardiomyopathy is a series of disorders causing primary heart muscle dysfunction that is often leading to [...]

Introduction Adrenal Insufficiency (AI) defines an inadequate secretion of cortisol or aldosterone or both hormones. At the same time the clinical picture can be highly variable and anyone presented with unexplained fatigue, hyponatraemia or hypertension should be subjected to suspicion of AI by the clinician(1). The disease is classified in such a way that the [...]

Autoimmune Diseases The autoimmunity is a mechanism that the immune system utilizes to destroy extra cellular pathogens or host cells. The harbor intracellular foreign bodies such as mycobacterium or viruses must be appropriately targeted damage to normal host tissue is to be avoided.2 Under most inflammatory circumstances; some bystander tissue damage is unavoidable. In most [...]

Introduction Caffeine is a methylxanthine whose primary biologic effect is antagonism of the adenosine receptor.That can also acts as a mild central nervous system stimulant. Caffeine is the most widely consumed drug in Western society. It belongs to a class of organic compounds called alkaloids, which also include morphine, codeine, LSD, cocaine and nicotine.{1} . [...]